https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-97082026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9700-biology2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9701-chemistry2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9702-physics2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/elasticities2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/circular-flow-and-adas2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/trade-and-globalisation2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/market-failure2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/market-structures2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/market-failure2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/resource-allocation-and-economic-systems2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/circular-flow-of-income2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/protectionism2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/market-structures2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/price-elasticity-of-demand2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/inflation2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/unemployment2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/monetary-policy2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/exchange-rates2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/market-structures2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/theme-1-markets2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/market-system2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/find2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/privacy2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/terms2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/contact2026-07-16 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/1-1-scarcity-choice-opportunity-cost2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/student/ppc-opportunity-cost.pngA hand-drawn production possibility diagram. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/1-2-economic-methodology2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/1-3-factors-of-production2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/1-4-resource-allocation-economic-systems2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/student/allocative-efficiency.pngA hand-drawn demand and supply diagram with price on the vertical axis and quantity on the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/1-5-production-possibility-curves2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ppc.jpgA production possibility frontier for two goods with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/1-6-classification-of-goods-and-services2026-08-07 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/2-1-demand-and-supply-curves2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/9708_s19_13_q13.pngDemand shifting right from D1 to D2 against an unchanged supply curve, moving equilibrium from E1 up to E2. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/9708_w19_31_q17.pngSupply sloping up and demand sloping down, crossing once at wage W and quantity L. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/demand-shift-vs-movement.svgA rise in income shifts the whole demand curve right from D1 to D2, moving equilibrium from E1 to E2 so both price and quantity rise. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/2-2-elasticities-of-demand-ped-yed-xed2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/ped-along-demand-and-total-revenue.pngA straight-line demand curve with elasticity varying along it: price elastic above the midpoint… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/9708_s20_11_q8.pngFour demand curves D1 to D4 of differing slopes drawn against a vertical supply curve, giving prices P1 to P4. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/2-3-price-elasticity-of-supply2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/generated/pes-spectrum.svgThree straight supply curves of different steepness all drawn through the origin, each labelled PES… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/2-4-interaction-of-demand-and-supply2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/demand-supply-equilibrium.svgDemand slopes down, supply slopes up, and the two cross at the equilibrium price and quantity. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/2-5-consumer-and-producer-surplus2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/9708_s20_11_q12.pngA market in equilibrium at point E and price Pe. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/consumer-and-producer-surplus.pngThe market for bread at an equilibrium price of $2 and quantity of 400. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/3-1-reasons-for-government-intervention2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/3-2-methods-of-government-intervention2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/indirect-tax-incidence.svgA specific tax shifts supply up to S+tax. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/price-ceiling.jpgA maximum price set below equilibrium, at $500 rent against an equilibrium of about $600. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/price-floor.jpgA minimum price Pf set above the equilibrium P0. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/3-3-income-and-wealth-inequality2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/lorenz-curve.svgCumulative share of income against cumulative share of population. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/4-1-national-income-statistics2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/4-2-circular-flow-of-income2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/circular-flow-of-income.svgHouseholds and firms linked by two flows: households supply factors of production and receive incomes, then spend that income on what firms produce. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/4-3-aggregate-demand-and-aggregate-supply2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/ad-as-equilibrium.svgAggregate demand slopes down and short-run aggregate supply slopes up, meeting at the current price level and output. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/9708_s19_13_q18.pngAggregate demand shifting right from AD to AD1 against an upward-sloping aggregate supply curve. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/4-4-economic-growth2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/business-cycle.svgReal output over time, waving above and below a rising trend line. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/9708_s18_13_q19.pngAn aggregate demand and aggregate supply diagram where the AS curve becomes near-vertical as real… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/4-5-unemployment2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/phillips-curve.svgInflation plotted against unemployment. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/4-6-price-stability2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/generated/demand-pull-inflation.svgAggregate demand shifting right along an upward sloping and steepening aggregate supply curve, with… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/5-1-macroeconomic-policy-objectives2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/5-2-fiscal-policy2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/student/ad-shift-short-run.pngA hand-drawn aggregate demand and supply diagram. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/5-3-monetary-policy2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/money-market.jpgThe market for money with the interest rate on the vertical axis. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/5-4-supply-side-policy2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/6-1-reasons-for-international-trade2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/comparative-advantage.jpgTwo countries' production possibility frontiers for the same pair of goods, drawn with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/6-2-protectionism2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/tariff.jpgDomestic supply and demand with a world price below the no-trade equilibrium. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/6-3-current-account-balance-of-payments2026-08-07 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/6-4-exchange-rates2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/9708_w17_12_q22.pngThe market for one currency priced in another: demand slopes down, and a shift of supply from S1 to… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/as/6-5-correcting-current-account-imbalances2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/7-1-utility2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/generated/utility-tu-mu.svgTotal utility rising to a peak and then falling, drawn above marginal utility falling in a straight line and crossing zero directly below that peak. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/7-2-indifference-curves-and-budget-lines2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/student/consumer-equilibrium-indifference.pngA hand-drawn indifference curve diagram in ink. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/student/giffen-income-substitution.pngA hand-drawn indifference curve diagram in ink showing a Giffen good. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/7-3-efficiency-and-market-failure2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/allocative-efficiency-surplus.pngA market at equilibrium with the area between the demand curve and the price shaded as consumer… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/ppc-pareto-efficiency.pngA production possibility curve for wheat and beef. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/7-4-externalities-and-social-costs-benefits2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/9708_s18_32_q4.pngTwo supply curves on one diagram: S1 shows private cost and S2, above it, shows social cost. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/social-optimum-welfare-loss.pngMarginal social cost drawn above marginal private cost, both rising, cutting a falling marginal private benefit line that also equals marginal social benefit. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/commons/negative-production-externality.jpgA negative production externality: marginal social cost lies above marginal private cost, so the… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/7-5-costs-revenue-and-profit2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/economies-of-scale-lrac.pngA long-run average cost curve falling as output rises through economies of scale, flattening at the… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/productive-efficiency-lrac.pngAverage cost curves with output on the horizontal axis. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/total-cost-curves.pngTotal cost curves plotted against output. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/9708_s23_31_q4.pngTwo long-run average cost curves falling as quantity rises, LRAC1 above LRAC2. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/7-6-market-structures2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/market-structures-summary.pngA summary table of market structures. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/monopoly-allocative-inefficiency.pngA monopoly diagram with marginal cost, average cost, average revenue and marginal revenue. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/total-revenue-along-demand.pngTwo panels of the same downward-sloping demand curve with its marginal revenue curve below it and a rising marginal cost curve. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/perfect-competition-price-taker.pngTwo panels contrasting the two cases. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/costs-and-revenue-curves.pngCosts and revenues against output, with a downward-sloping average revenue curve, a steeper… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/perfect-competition.jpgThree cases for a price-taking firm, each with average cost, marginal cost and a horizontal marginal revenue line at the market price. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/monopolistic-competition.jpgA firm facing a downward-sloping demand curve with marginal revenue below it, and U-shaped average and marginal cost curves. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/9708_w22_32_q12.pngA monopolist's cost and revenue curves. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/monopoly-supernormal-profit.pngA monopoly diagram with marginal cost, average total cost, a downward-sloping demand curve and marginal revenue below it. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/7-7-growth-and-survival-of-firms2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/student/dynamic-efficiency-lrac-shift.pngA hand-drawn diagram in ink. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/7-8-differing-objectives-and-policies-of-firms2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/8-1-policies-to-correct-market-failure2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/negative-production-externality.pngCoal-fired electricity as a negative production externality: the marginal private cost curve lies… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/negative-externality-with-tax.pngThe same coal-fired electricity market after a specific tax. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/student/negative-externality-partial-tax.pngA hand-drawn diagram of the market for aviation pollution. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/positive-consumption-externality.pngEducation as a positive consumption externality: marginal social benefit lies above marginal… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/positive-externality-with-subsidy.pngThe education market after a subsidy. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/8-2-equity-and-redistribution2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/commons/lorenz-curve-jordan.pngA Lorenz curve for Jordan bowing below the straight line of perfect equality, with area A between… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/8-3-labour-market-forces-and-intervention2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/9-1-circular-flow-injections-withdrawals2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/9-2-economic-growth-and-sustainability2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/student/ppc-output-gap.pngA hand-drawn production possibility curve with goods on the vertical axis and services on the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/9-3-employment-and-unemployment2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/9-4-money-and-banking2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/generated/money-market-equilibrium.svgA vertical money supply line meeting a downward sloping money demand curve, with dashed guides marking the equilibrium nominal interest rate on the vertical axis. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/10-1-policy-objectives-and-conflicts2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/ad-as-and-phillips-curve.pngTwo linked diagrams showing the same adjustment twice. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/10-2-links-between-macroeconomic-problems2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/student/phillips-curve-short-run.pngA hand-drawn short-run Phillips curve. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/10-3-effectiveness-of-policy-options2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/11-1-policies-to-correct-balance-of-payments-disequilibrium2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/11-2-exchange-rates2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/exchange-rate-market-equilibrium.pngThe market for a currency: demand slopes down and supply slopes up against the exchange rate on the… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/two-currency-markets.pngTwo panels side by side. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/interest-rates-and-the-exchange-rate.pngTwo panels showing a rise in Swiss interest rates. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/exchange-rate-surplus-of-currency.pngThe market for Swiss francs in the United Kingdom, priced in pounds per franc. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/exchange-rate-target-band.pngThe market for Hong Kong dollars in the United States. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/exchange-rate-demand-shift.pngThe same market with the ceiling still at 0. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/11-3-economic-development2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/11-4-characteristics-of-countries-at-different-levels-of-development2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/commons/lorenz-curve-jordan.pngA Lorenz curve for Jordan bowing below the straight line of perfect equality, with area A between… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/11-5-relationship-between-countries-at-different-levels-of-development2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/tutor/tariff-on-imports.pngA market for solar panels showing a world supply line and a higher world-supply-plus-tariff line. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9708/a-level/11-6-globalisation2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/what-is-economics2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ppc.jpgA production possibility frontier for two goods with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/how-economists-approach-the-world2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/demand2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/demand-curve.jpgA demand curve with real prices and quantities on the axes, sloping down: as the price per unit falls, the quantity buyers are willing to purchase rises. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/supply2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/supply-curve.jpgA supply curve with real prices and quantities on the axes, sloping up: as the price per unit rises, the quantity firms are willing to offer rises with it. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/competitive-market-equilibrium2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/demand-and-supply.jpgDemand and supply for one good drawn on the same axes, with money prices up the vertical axis and quantities along the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/surplus.jpgConsumer surplus as the triangle between the demand curve and the price paid, and producer surplus… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/behavioural-economics2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/elasticity-of-demand2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/elasticity-extremes.jpgThe two limiting cases side by side: perfectly elastic demand and supply are horizontal lines, because at that price buyers or sellers will take any quantity at all. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/elasticity-of-supply2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/elasticity-extremes.jpgThe two limiting cases side by side: perfectly elastic demand and supply are horizontal lines, because at that price buyers or sellers will take any quantity at all. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/role-of-government-in-microeconomics2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/price-ceiling.jpgA maximum price set below equilibrium. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/price-floor.jpgA minimum price Pf set above the equilibrium P0. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/market-failure-externalities2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/commons/negative-production-externality.jpgA negative production externality: marginal social cost lies above marginal private cost, so the… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/externality.jpgA market with demand and two supply curves: the lower one counts only the firm's private costs, the higher one adds the cost imposed on everyone else. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/market-failure-public-goods2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/market-failure-asymmetric-information2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/market-failure-market-power2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/monopoly.jpgA monopolist's demand, marginal revenue and average cost curves with money values on the axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/economies-of-scale.jpgA falling long-run average cost curve with dollar costs on the vertical axis and quantity produced on the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/market-inability-to-achieve-equity2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/unemployment.jpgA labour market where the wage sits above the level that would clear it. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/measuring-economic-activity2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/aggregate-demand-and-supply2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ad-as.jpgAggregate demand sloping down against an aggregate supply curve that steepens as output rises, with the price level on one axis and real GDP in dollars on the other. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ad-shift.jpgTwo panels of the same model. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/unemployment2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/unemployment.jpgA labour market where the wage sits above the level that would clear it. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/inflation2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/economic-growth2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ppc.jpgA production possibility frontier for two goods with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/equity-income-distribution2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/lorenz-curve.jpgTwo Lorenz curves plotted against the line of perfect equality, with cumulative shares of income and of households on the axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/monetary-policy2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/money-market.jpgThe market for money with the interest rate on the vertical axis. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/fiscal-policy2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/supply-side-policies2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ppc.jpgA production possibility frontier for two goods with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/benefits-of-international-trade2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/comparative-advantage.jpgTwo straight-line production possibility frontiers drawn for forty workers each. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/types-of-trade-protection2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/tariff.jpgDomestic supply and demand with a world price below the no-trade equilibrium. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/arguments-for-and-against-protection2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/economic-integration2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/exchange-rates2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/exchange-rate.jpgThe foreign exchange market for one currency priced in another, with demand sloping down and supply sloping up. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/balance-of-payments2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/sustainable-development2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/measuring-development2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/barriers-to-development2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/development-strategies2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/paper-1-structure2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/paper-2-data-response2026-08-12 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/paper-3-policy-paper2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/command-terms2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ib-economics/internal-assessment2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/1-1-nature-of-the-economic-problem2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/1-2-factors-of-production2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/1-3-opportunity-cost2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/1-4-production-possibility-curves2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/0455_s23_13_q2.pngA production possibility curve shifting outwards from PPC1 to PPC2, with an arrow showing the movement. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/2-1-the-role-of-markets2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/2-2-demand2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/demand-curve.jpgA demand curve with real prices and quantities on the axes, sloping down: as the price per unit falls, the quantity buyers are willing to purchase rises. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/2-3-supply2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/supply-curve.jpgA supply curve with real prices and quantities on the axes, sloping up: as the price per unit rises, the quantity firms are willing to offer rises with it. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/2-4-price-determination2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/demand-and-supply.jpgDemand and supply for one good drawn on the same axes, with money prices up the vertical axis and quantities along the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/2-5-price-changes2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/2-6-price-elasticity-of-demand2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/elasticity-extremes.jpgThe two limiting cases side by side: perfectly elastic demand and supply are horizontal lines, because at that price buyers or sellers will take any quantity at all. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/2-7-price-elasticity-of-supply2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/2-8-market-economic-system2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/2-9-market-failure2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/externality.jpgA market with demand and two supply curves: the lower one counts only the firm's private costs, the higher one adds the cost imposed on everyone else. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/2-10-mixed-economic-system2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/3-1-money-and-banking2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/3-2-households2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/3-3-workers2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/labour-market.jpgThe market for labour with the wage on the vertical axis and the number of workers on the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/3-4-firms2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/3-5-firms-and-production2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/3-6-costs-revenue-and-objectives2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/costs-short-run.jpgShort-run cost curves with money values on the axes: marginal cost rising, average variable cost… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/3-7-market-structure2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/monopoly.jpgA monopolist's demand, marginal revenue and average cost curves with money values on the axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/4-1-macroeconomic-aims2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/4-2-fiscal-policy2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/4-3-monetary-policy2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/money-market.jpgThe market for money with the interest rate on the vertical axis. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/4-4-supply-side-policy2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/4-5-economic-growth2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/4-6-employment-and-unemployment2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/unemployment.jpgA labour market where the wage sits above the level that would clear it. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/4-7-inflation-and-deflation2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/5-1-living-standards2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/5-2-poverty2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/lorenz-curve.jpgTwo Lorenz curves plotted against the line of perfect equality, with cumulative shares of income and of households on the axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/5-3-population2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/5-4-differences-in-development2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/6-1-international-specialisation2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/6-2-globalisation-free-trade-and-protection2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/tariff.jpgDomestic supply and demand with a world price below the no-trade equilibrium. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/6-3-foreign-exchange-rates2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/exchange-rate.jpgThe foreign exchange market for one currency priced in another, with demand sloping down and supply sloping up. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/igcse-economics/6-4-current-account-of-balance-of-payments2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/1-1-nature-of-economics2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ppc.jpgA production possibility frontier for two goods with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/1-2-how-markets-work2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/demand-and-supply.jpgDemand and supply for one good drawn on the same axes, with money prices up the vertical axis and quantities along the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/1-3-market-failure2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/externality.jpgA market with demand and two supply curves: the lower one counts only the firm's private costs, the higher one adds the cost imposed on everyone else. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/1-4-government-intervention2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/price-ceiling.jpgA maximum price set below equilibrium. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/2-1-measures-of-economic-performance2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/2-2-aggregate-demand2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ad-shift.jpgAggregate demand shifting right and then left against the same aggregate supply curve. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/2-3-aggregate-supply2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ad-as.jpgAggregate demand sloping down against an aggregate supply curve that steepens as output rises, with the price level on one axis and real GDP in dollars on the other. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/2-4-national-income2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ad-shift.jpgTwo panels of the same model. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/2-5-economic-growth2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ppc.jpgA production possibility frontier for two goods with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/2-6-macroeconomic-objectives-and-policies2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/3-1-business-growth2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/economies-of-scale.jpgA falling long-run average cost curve with dollar costs on the vertical axis and quantity produced on the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/3-2-business-objectives2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/3-3-revenues-costs-and-profits2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/costs-short-run.jpgShort-run cost curves with money values on the axes: marginal cost rising, average variable cost… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/3-4-market-structures2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/perfect-competition.jpgThree cases for a price-taking firm, each with average cost, marginal cost and a horizontal… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/3-5-labour-market2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/labour-market.jpgThe market for labour with the wage on the vertical axis and the number of workers on the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/3-6-government-intervention-in-markets2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/price-floor.jpgA minimum price Pf set above the equilibrium P0. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/4-1-international-economics2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/tariff.jpgDomestic supply and demand with a world price below the no-trade equilibrium. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/4-2-poverty-and-inequality2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/lorenz-curve.jpgTwo Lorenz curves plotted against the line of perfect equality, with cumulative shares of income and of households on the axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/4-3-emerging-and-developing-economies2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/4-4-the-financial-sector2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/money-market.jpgThe market for money with the interest rate on the vertical axis. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-economics/4-5-role-of-the-state-in-the-macroeconomy2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/1-1-economic-methodology-and-the-economic-problem2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ppc.jpgA production possibility frontier for two goods with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/1-2-individual-decision-making2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/2-1-demand-supply-and-elasticities2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/demand-and-supply.jpgDemand and supply for one good drawn on the same axes, with money prices up the vertical axis and quantities along the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/elasticity-extremes.jpgThe two limiting cases side by side: perfectly elastic demand and supply are horizontal lines, because at that price buyers or sellers will take any quantity at all. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/2-2-the-price-mechanism-and-market-equilibrium2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/demand-and-supply.jpgDemand and supply for one good drawn on the same axes, with money prices up the vertical axis and quantities along the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/2-3-consumer-and-producer-surplus2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/surplus.jpgConsumer surplus as the triangle between the demand curve and the price paid, and producer surplus… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/3-1-production-and-costs2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/costs-short-run.jpgShort-run cost curves with money values on the axes: marginal cost rising, average variable cost… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/3-2-revenue-and-profit2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/monopoly.jpgA monopolist's demand, marginal revenue and average cost curves with money values on the axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/4-1-perfect-competition-and-monopoly2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/perfect-competition.jpgThree cases for a price-taking firm, each with average cost, marginal cost and a horizontal… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/4-2-oligopoly2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/student/kinked-demand-curve.pngA hand-drawn kinked demand curve in ink. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/4-3-the-labour-market2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/9708_w20_31_q17.pngThe marginal revenue product and average revenue product of labour drawn from the same point on the… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/past-paper/9708_s16_31_q15.pngA monopsony employer's labour market with four curves. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/5-1-market-failure2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/externality.jpgA market with demand and two supply curves: the lower one counts only the firm's private costs, the higher one adds the cost imposed on everyone else. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/5-2-government-intervention-and-failure2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/price-ceiling.jpgA maximum price set below equilibrium. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/5-3-distribution-of-income-and-wealth2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/6-1-economic-growth-and-the-cycle2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ppc.jpgA production possibility frontier for two goods with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/6-2-inflation-employment-and-the-balance-of-payments2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/6-3-measuring-macroeconomic-performance2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/7-1-aggregate-demand-and-the-multiplier2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ad-shift.jpgAggregate demand shifting right and then left against the same aggregate supply curve. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/7-2-aggregate-supply2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ad-as.jpgAggregate demand sloping down against an aggregate supply curve that steepens as output rises, with the price level on one axis and real GDP in dollars on the other. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/8-1-macroeconomic-objectives-and-conflicts2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/9-1-fiscal-policy2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/9-2-monetary-policy2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/money-market.jpgThe market for money with the interest rate on the vertical axis. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/9-3-supply-side-policies2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ppc.jpgA production possibility frontier for two goods with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/9-4-financial-markets-and-banking2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/10-1-globalisation-and-trade2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/tariff.jpgDomestic supply and demand with a world price below the no-trade equilibrium. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/10-2-exchange-rates-and-the-balance-of-payments2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/exchange-rate.jpgThe foreign exchange market for one currency priced in another, with demand sloping down and supply sloping up. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/aqa-economics/10-3-economic-development2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/lorenz-curve.jpgTwo Lorenz curves plotted against the line of perfect equality, with cumulative shares of income and of households on the axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/1-1-the-economic-problem2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ppc.jpgA production possibility frontier for two goods with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/1-2-demand-supply-and-price2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/demand-and-supply.jpgDemand and supply for one good drawn on the same axes, with money prices up the vertical axis and quantities along the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/1-3-elasticity2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/elasticity-extremes.jpgThe two limiting cases side by side: perfectly elastic demand and supply are horizontal lines, because at that price buyers or sellers will take any quantity at all. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/1-4-market-failure2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/externality.jpgA market with demand and two supply curves: the lower one counts only the firm's private costs, the higher one adds the cost imposed on everyone else. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/2-1-production-and-productivity2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/2-2-costs-revenue-and-profit2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/costs-short-run.jpgShort-run cost curves with money values on the axes: marginal cost rising, average variable cost… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/2-3-competition-and-the-labour-market2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/labour-market.jpgThe market for labour with the wage on the vertical axis and the number of workers on the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/3-1-government-objectives-and-policies2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/3-2-economic-growth2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/3-3-employment-and-unemployment2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/unemployment.jpgA labour market where the wage sits above the level that would clear it. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/3-4-inflation2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/4-1-international-trade-and-globalisation2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/tariff.jpgDomestic supply and demand with a world price below the no-trade equilibrium. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/4-2-exchange-rates2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/exchange-rate.jpgThe foreign exchange market for one currency priced in another, with demand sloping down and supply sloping up. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/edexcel-igcse-economics/4-3-balance-of-payments-and-development2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ap-economics/micro-1-basic-economic-concepts2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ppc.jpgA production possibility frontier for two goods with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/comparative-advantage.jpgTwo straight-line production possibility frontiers drawn for forty workers each. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ap-economics/micro-2-supply-and-demand2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/demand-and-supply.jpgDemand and supply for one good drawn on the same axes, with money prices up the vertical axis and quantities along the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/elasticity-extremes.jpgThe two limiting cases side by side: perfectly elastic demand and supply are horizontal lines, because at that price buyers or sellers will take any quantity at all. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/surplus.jpgConsumer surplus as the triangle between the demand curve and the price paid, and producer surplus… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/price-ceiling.jpgA maximum price set below equilibrium. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/price-floor.jpgA minimum price Pf set above the equilibrium P0. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ap-economics/micro-3-production-cost-perfect-competition2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/costs-short-run.jpgShort-run cost curves with money values on the axes: marginal cost rising, average variable cost… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/economies-of-scale.jpgA falling long-run average cost curve with dollar costs on the vertical axis and quantity produced on the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/perfect-competition.jpgThree cases for a price-taking firm, each with average cost, marginal cost and a horizontal… https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ap-economics/micro-4-imperfect-competition2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/monopoly.jpgA monopolist's demand, marginal revenue and average cost curves with money values on the axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/monopolistic-competition.jpgA firm facing a downward-sloping demand curve with marginal revenue below it, and U-shaped average and marginal cost curves. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ap-economics/micro-5-factor-markets2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/labour-market.jpgThe market for labour with the wage on the vertical axis and the number of workers on the horizontal. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ap-economics/micro-6-market-failure-and-government2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/externality.jpgA market with demand and two supply curves: the lower one counts only the firm's private costs, the higher one adds the cost imposed on everyone else. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/lorenz-curve.jpgTwo Lorenz curves plotted against the line of perfect equality, with cumulative shares of income and of households on the axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ap-economics/macro-1-basic-economic-concepts2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ppc.jpgA production possibility frontier for two goods with real quantities on both axes. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/comparative-advantage.jpgTwo straight-line production possibility frontiers drawn for forty workers each. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ap-economics/macro-2-economic-indicators-business-cycle2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ap-economics/macro-3-national-income-price-determination2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ad-as.jpgAggregate demand sloping down against an aggregate supply curve that steepens as output rises, with the price level on one axis and real GDP in dollars on the other. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/ad-shift.jpgTwo panels of the same model. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ap-economics/macro-4-financial-sector2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/money-market.jpgThe market for money with the interest rate on the vertical axis. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ap-economics/macro-5-long-run-consequences-stabilization2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/ap-economics/macro-6-open-economy-trade-finance2026-08-09 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/notes-assets/openstax/exchange-rate.jpgTwo foreign exchange markets side by side. https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9700-biology/as/1-1-the-microscope-in-cell-studies2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9700-biology/as/1-2-cells-as-the-basic-units-of-living-organisms2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9700-biology/as/2-1-testing-for-biological-molecules2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9700-biology/as/2-2-carbohydrates-and-lipids2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9700-biology/as/2-3-proteins-and-water2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9700-biology/as/3-1-mode-of-action-of-enzymes2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9700-biology/as/3-2-factors-that-affect-enzyme-action2026-08-10 https://portal.excel-in-economics.com/cie-9700-biology/as/4-1-fluid-mosaic-membranes2026-08-10 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